Samuel Phillips Huntington (1927-2008) was among the most influential and controversial American political scientists of his generation. His 1993 article and 1996 book “The Clash of Civilizations” argued that the post-Cold War world would be shaped not by ideological or economic competition but by conflict between civilizations defined by culture and religion. The thesis proved explosively controversial—celebrated by some as prescient analysis, condemned by others as intellectual cover for Western chauvinism and Islamophobia.
Whether one accepts or rejects Huntington’s framework, engagement with it is unavoidable. His categories structure debates about terrorism, immigration, multiculturalism, and the relationship between the West and Islam. Understanding the “clash of civilizations”—its arguments, evidence, and limitations—is essential for navigating contemporary geopolitics.
The Person¶
Academic Career¶
Huntington’s career established him as a major figure in political science long before “The Clash of Civilizations”:
- Harvard PhD (1951) and professor from 1950 until his death
- Chairman of the Government Department and founder of the John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies
- Coordinator of security planning for the National Security Council under Carter
- Prolific author of books and articles on civil-military relations, political order, and American identity
His earlier work on political development and military institutions was highly regarded, if sometimes controversial for its skepticism about rapid democratization.
“Political Order in Changing Societies” (1968)¶
Before his civilizational work, Huntington’s most influential book argued that:
- Political stability matters more than democracy for developing countries
- Rapid modernization without strong institutions produces disorder
- The “gap” between political participation and institutional development creates instability
- Premature democratization can lead to chaos and authoritarianism
This work made Huntington’s reputation as a rigorous analyst willing to challenge liberal assumptions. It also foreshadowed his later emphasis on the importance of cultural cohesion.
Personal Characteristics¶
Colleagues described Huntington as:
- Intellectually fearless, willing to challenge consensus
- Empirically minded, marshaling evidence for controversial claims
- Conservative in temperament but not partisan in analysis
- Deeply concerned about Western civilization’s future
- Private and scholarly, avoiding the celebrity intellectual role
His willingness to make arguments others considered impolite or dangerous reflected genuine conviction rather than provocation for its own sake.
Key Ideas¶
The Clash of Civilizations Thesis¶
Huntington’s central argument, developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article and expanded in the 1996 book, can be summarized:
After the Cold War, the fundamental source of conflict will not be ideological (capitalism vs. communism) or economic (rich vs. poor) but cultural. The great divisions among humankind will be civilizational.
Civilizations are the highest cultural groupings of people, defined by common language, history, religion, customs, and institutions. Huntington identified major civilizations:
- Western: Europe, North America, Australia
- Orthodox: Russia and Eastern Orthodox countries
- Islamic: Middle East, North Africa, parts of Asia
- Hindu: India
- Sinic (Chinese): China, Vietnam, Korea
- Japanese: Japan as a distinct civilization
- Latin American: South and Central America
- African: Sub-Saharan Africa (possibly)
Conflict will occur along civilizational fault lines where these groupings meet and interact. The most dangerous fault line runs between the West and Islam, but tension between the West and the Sinic civilization is also significant.
Why Civilizations Clash¶
Huntington offered several reasons for civilizational conflict:
Fundamental differences: Civilizations differ on basic questions of God, humanity, society, and the relationship between individual and group. These differences are more fundamental than political ideologies.
The world is shrinking: Increased interaction brings civilizations into contact, heightening awareness of differences and historical grievances.
Economic modernization weakens local identities: As people lose village and national identities, they reach for larger cultural affiliations—religion above all.
Western dominance provokes reaction: The West’s economic and military supremacy, combined with efforts to promote Western values as universal, generates backlash.
Cultural characteristics are less mutable than political ones: A Russian cannot become Estonian, an Azerbaijani cannot become Armenian. Culture is given, not chosen.
The West vs. The Rest¶
Huntington argued that Western civilization faced particular challenges:
Universalism versus particularism: The West believes its values (democracy, human rights, individualism) are universal; other civilizations see them as Western imperialism in disguise.
The “torn countries”: Some states (Turkey, Mexico, Russia) are divided between civilizations, creating internal instability and unpredictable foreign policies.
The Islamic resurgence: Islam is experiencing a major revival, asserting its values against Western secularism and modernity. This is not “extremism” but a civilizational phenomenon.
The Sinic challenge: China’s rise represents not just a new great power but an alternative civilization that may reject Western norms.
Recommendations¶
Huntington offered prescriptions for Western policy:
- Maintain Western unity: Preserve NATO, the EU, and transatlantic cooperation
- Expand Western civilization carefully: Accept only countries that are genuinely Western (not Turkey)
- Limit Western intervention in others’ affairs: Recognize limits to universalism
- Strengthen cultural institutions: Preserve Western identity against multiculturalism
- Avoid civilizational war: Manage conflicts to prevent them from becoming civilizational
Major Works¶
“The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order” (1996)¶
The book expanded the 1993 article into a comprehensive framework:
- Detailed analysis of each major civilization
- Historical evidence for civilizational patterns
- Case studies of fault-line conflicts (Bosnia, Chechnya, Kashmir)
- Discussion of the “core state” role within civilizations
- Predictions about future conflicts and alliances
The book became a bestseller and entered popular discourse, shaping how millions understood post-Cold War international relations.
“Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity” (2004)¶
Huntington applied civilizational thinking to American domestic politics:
- American identity was historically defined by Anglo-Protestant culture
- Mass Hispanic immigration threatens this cultural cohesion
- Multiculturalism undermines national unity
- America must choose whether to remain a Western nation or become something else
The book was even more controversial than “Clash of Civilizations,” with critics accusing Huntington of nativism and racism.
“The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century” (1991)¶
Before his civilizational turn, Huntington analyzed the global spread of democracy:
- Identified three “waves” of democratization in modern history
- Examined causes of democratic transitions
- Warned about potential reverse waves
- Analyzed consolidation challenges
This work showed Huntington’s analytical range and his longstanding concern with political order.
“The Soldier and the State” (1957)¶
Huntington’s first major work examined civil-military relations:
- Distinguished between “subjective” and “objective” control of the military
- Argued for professional military autonomy within democratic constraints
- Influenced American military culture and self-understanding
- Remains a foundational text in civil-military studies
Influence¶
Post-9/11 Discourse¶
September 11, 2001, seemed to validate Huntington’s thesis:
- Islamist terrorism appeared as civilizational conflict
- “The West” became a mobilizing concept
- Religious identity emerged as a primary political category
- “Clash of civilizations” entered popular vocabulary
Politicians, journalists, and pundits invoked Huntington to explain terrorism and justify responses. His framework shaped how millions understood what was happening.
Immigration and Identity Politics¶
Huntington’s arguments about cultural cohesion influenced debates about:
- European immigration policy and Muslim integration
- American border security and Hispanic immigration
- Multiculturalism versus assimilation
- National identity in the age of globalization
Both restrictionists and their critics engage with Huntington’s framework.
Right-Wing Populism¶
Elements of Huntington’s argument resonate with contemporary populist movements:
- Emphasis on civilizational identity
- Skepticism about multiculturalism
- Concern about immigration’s cultural effects
- Defense of Western civilization
Whether Huntington would endorse these movements is debatable, but his ideas provide intellectual resources for them.
Academic Impact¶
Despite or because of its controversy, “Clash of Civilizations” became one of the most cited works in international relations:
- Required reading in countless courses
- Framework for extensive research programs
- Stimulus for alternative theories
- Example of grand theory in political science
Criticisms¶
Essentialism and Homogenization¶
Critics argue Huntington treats civilizations as:
- Monolithic blocs rather than internally diverse
- Static rather than evolving
- Clearly bounded rather than overlapping
- Determined by religion rather than by multiple factors
Civilizations contain multitudes; reducing billions of people to a single category obscures more than it reveals.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy¶
A powerful critique holds that:
- Describing conflict as civilizational can make it so
- Leaders who accept the framework will act accordingly
- Western hostility toward Islam creates the conflict it predicts
- The thesis is performative, not merely analytical
Huntington’s ideas may have contributed to the very conflicts he claimed to predict.
Eurocentrism and Orientalism¶
Critics from postcolonial perspectives argue:
- Huntington assumes Western civilization’s superiority
- His category of “Islam” reproduces Orientalist stereotypes
- The framework ignores colonialism’s role in creating conflict
- “Civilization” is itself a Western concept imposed on others
Edward Said’s critique of Orientalism applies forcefully to Huntington’s treatment of Islamic civilization.
Empirical Problems¶
Scholars have challenged Huntington’s evidence:
- Most conflicts occur within civilizations, not between them
- Cooperation across civilizational lines is as common as conflict
- The predicted civilizational alliances have not formed
- Economic and political factors better explain conflict than culture
Systematic analysis of conflict patterns does not support the civilizational thesis.
The Exception of the West¶
Critics note contradictions in Huntington’s treatment of the West:
- Western civilization is presented as uniquely universal
- Its violence and imperialism are minimized
- Western conflicts (two World Wars) are not explained by the theory
- Western secularism is treated as authentically Western despite being recent
The framework may be special pleading for Western power rather than objective analysis.
Contemporary Relevance¶
The Return of Great Power Competition¶
As US-China rivalry intensifies, civilizational frames are invoked:
- “Democracy versus autocracy” has civilizational overtones
- China is portrayed as representing a different civilization
- The “Indo-Pacific” concept implicitly groups Asian democracies with the West
- Cultural differences are cited to explain strategic competition
Huntington’s categories, however problematic, structure these debates.
European Identity Crisis¶
Europe faces questions Huntington raised:
- Can Muslim immigrants integrate into Western societies?
- Should European identity be Christian or secular?
- How should Europe respond to demographic change?
- What are the limits of multiculturalism?
Whether one accepts Huntington’s answers or not, his questions are inescapable.
Islam and the West¶
The relationship between Western and Islamic civilizations remains central:
- Terrorism and counterterrorism continue
- Muslim immigration remains contentious
- Questions of religious expression in secular societies persist
- Both cooperation and conflict characterize the relationship
Huntington provided one framework for understanding this relationship; alternatives must engage with his arguments.
The Limits of Universalism¶
Huntington challenged the assumption that Western values are universal:
- Human rights may be Western rather than universal
- Democracy may not suit all societies
- Economic modernization need not produce cultural Westernization
- The “end of history” may be premature
This challenge remains important as the liberal international order faces pressures.
Conclusion¶
Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” is one of those works that cannot be ignored regardless of one’s assessment. It provided categories that millions use to understand world politics, for better or worse. Its predictions about civilizational conflict have been partially vindicated and partially refuted. Its influence on policy and public discourse has been profound and troubling.
The proper response to Huntington is neither uncritical acceptance nor dismissive rejection but serious engagement. His questions about identity, culture, and conflict are real even if his answers are flawed. The relationship between civilizations—whether one accepts that category or not—remains central to international relations.
Huntington himself would likely appreciate the controversy his work generates. He believed in rigorous analysis of uncomfortable questions, even when the answers were unwelcome. Whether his civilizational framework illuminates or distorts the world it describes, it has forced serious thought about culture, identity, and conflict in ways that continue to shape how we understand international politics.
Sources & Further Reading¶
Samuel Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order” (1996) - The primary text, essential for understanding Huntington’s argument in his own words. Whatever one’s view of the thesis, direct engagement with the source is necessary.
Edward Said, “The Clash of Ignorance” (2001) - Said’s devastating critique, published shortly after 9/11, argues that Huntington’s categories reproduce Orientalist stereotypes and serve Western power rather than genuine understanding.
Amartya Sen, “Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny” (2006) - The Nobel laureate economist argues that reducing people to single civilizational identities ignores the multiple affiliations that characterize human beings and creates the violence it claims to explain.
Robert Jervis, “An Interim Assessment of September 11: What Has Changed and What Has Not?” (2002) - A balanced evaluation of how 9/11 affected international relations theory, including Huntington’s thesis. Jervis argues the evidence is more mixed than either critics or supporters acknowledge.
Fouad Ajami, “The Summoning” (1993) - An early critique by a distinguished scholar of the Middle East, arguing that Huntington underestimates the appeal of modernity within Islamic societies and overstates civilizational cohesion.